The Apollo Years

The Legacy of Apollo

...........Kennedy inspired the nation with his aspirations of grandeur. His plan to put men on the moon did not represent as much of a commitment to science as it did to an improvement of the nations morale. But it was presented with such passion and conviction by the smooth talking president, that when presented to congress it was overwhelmingly approved. The projected price tag: an incredible $25 billion dollars (Crouch, 61). Amazingly, the critics’ voices were weak in the decision to spend this much tax money on a manned moon mission (Crouch, 61). It was a mission that even top officials acknowledged was going ahead for "…important national objectives other than science"(Collins, 98). The plans proceeded nonetheless, comprising what could honestly be deemed modern mankind’s most ambitious undertaking.

President Kennedy delivered a powerful speech on May 25, 1961 to a joint session of Congress. His challenge to the nation to land men on the moon was answered by overwhelming approval of what was to be one of the costliest projects ever concieved.

The original seven Mercury astronauts. These men were selected on April 9, 1959 to be the first American space travelers. Back row, left to right: Alan B. Shephard, Jr., Virgil I. Grissom, L. Gordon Cooper. Front row, left to right: Walter M. Schirra, Jr., Donald K."Deke" Slayton, John H. Glenn, Jr., and Scott Carpenter.

NASA Finds Success

...........At the time of Kennedys’ speech, the American manned space program was unimpressive at best, and it would be a long and expensive project to get the ball rolling. Not only would this project demand fundamental advances in the state of technological progress, but it would also require wholly new organizational strategies and incredible managerial feats. NASA became a behemoth in the space science scene with its devotion to the Apollo program, causing much bickering between itself and other scientific factions such as JPL (Collins, 102). With the upper echelons of the scientific community already questioning the motives of the Apollo program, it was no wonder that tension arose from NASA’s ranks. Statements that defined all lunar missions by the goals of the Apollo program by NASA officers such as the head of the Office of Space Science, Homer Newell, characterized this somewhat arrogant stance; he said outright "Pure [lunar] science experiments will provide the engineering answers for Apollo"(Collins, 103). This obviously discounted the ingenuity of those scientists who toiled at creating these experiments, due cause for indignity. Thus, management would prove to be a daunting task in the accomplishment of such a gargantuan project.

...........The managerial task fell into able hands. In early 1961, the able and competent James E. Webb was chosen by JFK to replace T. Keith Glennan, NASA’s first chief administrator (Crouch, 63). Webb was perfect for the job, with his keen political savvy and exceptional managerial skills. He not only won support and helped direct the building of new facilities in politically advantageous regions (Crouch, 62). He also set up an Office of Quality assurance to observe and scrutinize all phases of research and development in his jurisdiction (Crouch, 63). Webb’s competence and skill in both the massive and the minute details of the Apollo project proved to be an invaluable asset and probably one of the most integral aspects of the missions later success.

James E. Webb was sworn in as head administrator of NASA on February 14, 1961. Under his leadership the increasingly complex administration prospered and grew.

John Glenn was a figurehead for the American space program. His distinguished military background coupled with his heroic performances in space missions made him seem larger-than-life to many onlookers.

...........While Webb and his fellow bureaucrats adeptly controlled the inner workings of the Apollo objectives, the world watched in amazement as new heroes continued to rise to the stars in progressively more sophisticated vessels. The Mercury one-manned rockets gave way to the two-manned Gemini craft, quickly approaching the level of advancement needed to conduct a moon mission. By early 1962, the hot-shot test pilot John Glenn had become the first American to orbit earth and stay in a condition of weightlessness for an extended period, allaying fears of any negative effects. On the same flight his assumption of manual control of the Friendship 7 in a time of computer malfunction reassured Americans that their astronauts had the right stuff (Crouch, 66). More spectacular heroics and vital experimentation laid down the foundation for increased interest by the public in the programs, as well as increased confidence by the designers.

...........With the onset of the Gemini program, the last necessary experiments were being conducted to prepare men for a walk on the moon. A rendezvous in space by two separate vessels would be a necessity in the Apollo missions, and it was proven that it could be done by the Gemini 6-A and Gemini 7 (Crouch, 68). Also accomplished by the Gemini series was the first American spacewalk, when astronaut Ed White left his capsule wearing a special spacesuit, another test that reinforced the feasibility of a moon mission (Crouch, 67). Overall the Gemini missions were a huge success and a boost to the American people. Progress was undeniably being made, and it was an American victory.

Ed White was the first american to engage in extra-vehicular activities (EVA) in space. The spacewalk required a marriage of many technologies and was a stepping stone in a jounney to the moon.