Summary of Findings from
Analysis of
Flaked Stone Materials from the Skyrocket Site
10 February 1998
Under Construction
FLAKED STONE ANALYSIS
David G. Bieling
Flaked stone analysis of the materials recovered during the archaeological
investigations at the Skyrocket site have been the result of efforts by several
individuals over a period of eight years. During earlier phases of these
investigations, Dr. James Bennyhoff, John Dougherty,
Rusty Weisman, and Michael Rondeau examined the
collections and made important contributions to the project. Bennyhoff's observations on at least 1091 items, mostly
flaked stone, were recorded by assistants during several sessions March - May
1992 and provide a range of typological and chronometric information useful for
understanding the collection. His efforts focused on linking diagnostic
artifact forms to established cultural phases. As such, his contributions
helped develop the chronologic framework applied to the Skyrocket collection.
Rondeau contributed several reports discussing
various aspects of the collections, particularly with regards to the materials
from the West and Northeast loci (Rondeau and Rondeau 1990, 1991). His contributions provided the
groundwork for much of the subsequent research. The portions of the collections
allocated to him for study, however, were often a mix of different time periods
and technologies. Based on his extensive familiarity with flaked stone
collections from the
Dougherty and Weisman were present throughout the course of field
investigations and, consequently, may have viewed more of the collection than
any other individuals. Both recognized significant attributes of the flaked
stone assemblages during and after excavation. Their experience helped guide
further in-field investigation and provide direction for future research.
The study presented below is the result of several months of effort spanning a
four-year period. During the various periods when analysis was conducted, not
all materials were available for examination, nor was
the entire debitage collection ever thoroughly sorted
by an experienced lithic analyst to identify
fragments potentially misclassified during initial sorts. Materials from the
upper components--all artifacts from 160cm and above--were examined during a
four-week period in winter, 1992/1993. These included 858 items (a small number
previously examined by Rondeau) which were briefly
described on 88 pages of notes. These notes are in the possession of the author
and CSU
Needless to say, the time allotted for analysis was insufficient to the task.
The sample examined might comprise better than approximately 95% of the
recovered artifacts and perhaps less than 10% of the debitage.
This includes virtually all the artifacts recovered from the upper soil strata
within components 4-1 and about 90% of those from the deep component (8) and
the TGC (Component 7-5). Samples of debitage selected
for attribute analysis by CSUF students were examined on several occasions and
most of the obsidian debitage from Component 8 was
examined after the fact. All data used herein for calculations and tables was
supplied by the principal investigators of the project.
The earliest flaked stone assemblage identified at Skyrocket is attributed to a
Sierra foothill aspect of the
Following the WPLT, the Stanislaus Phase represents an early Archaic assemblage
characterized by attributes that differ dramatically in some respects from the
WPLT but show similarities to other mid-Holocene collections throughout the
Desert West. This assemblage was recovered primarily from the deep clay strata
though like the previous assemblage, some materials also derived from the
overlying TGC. Radiocarbon assays and obsidian hydration data placed this
component approximately 8000-6900 b.p.
Materials morphologically similar to items within both the WPLT and Stanislaus
Phase assemblages were identified within other soil strata albeit in much
smaller numbers. Their presence in these upper strata can be explained primarily
on the basis of the site's complex geomorphological
history. It is also quite possible that the later of these assemblages was
represented by occupations associated with strata within the TGC/DBGC series.
Artifact scavenging by later occupants might also account for some of this.
Although two assemblages are defined for Component 8, additional flaked stone
items recovered from the clay strata might indicate the presence of a third.
Long-stemmed points of the
Calaveran Phase materials were recovered from the TGC
strata and South Central strata 2 and 3. Moratto
places this phase within the time period 5500-3000 b.p. (Moratto, in press).
These dates are supported to some degree by radiocarbon and obsidian hydration
data from the Skyrocket site. At the study site, Components 7-5 are dated 6,670
- 4,890 b.p., the lower end of the temporal spectrum
could be attributed to the preceding Stanislaus Phase occupations or represent
an earlier date for initiation of the Calaveras Phase.
An Upper Archaic Period assemblage attributed to the Sierra Phase (ca.
3000-1500 b.p.) was
recovered primarily from the soil strata defining Components 4-1--Transitional,
and Light, Medium, and Dark Brown Surface Loams (Trans, LBSL, MBSL, DBSL). Some
materials associated with this assemblage also derived from the underlying TGC,
possibly as a result of intrusive burials. Likewise, some materials from the
preceding Calaveras Phase assemblage might have been recovered from these upper
soil strata.
Materials attributable to the Redbud Phase (ca. 1500-700 b.p.) were identified in the collection, however, the
assemblage is not well-represented at this site and definition of its flaked
stone characteristics is limited. Typologically diagnostic items and obsidian
hydration data constitute most of the temporal evidence for materials
attributable to this assemblage.
Horseshoe
The following sections describe the flaked stone collections by defined
components, integrating these into temporally defined assemblages. The
objective of these studies is twofold: 1) to characterize temporally discrete
flaked stone assemblages in the Skyrocket locality represented by the recovered
materials; and 2) to provide robust descriptions of these assemblages useful
for constructing models of technological organization (Ericson and Purdy 1984;
Kelly 1988; Nelson 1991). Together, these studies should provide the basis for
developing a framework for examining aspects of cultural change and adaptation
for the human groups occupying the region during the past 9,200 years.
Limitations affecting the success of these objectives include potentially
significant mixing of materials within both component 8--the lower soil strata,
and components 4-1--the upper soil strata. Components 7-5 within the gravelly
clay series--formed by colluvial/erosional events and
brief periods of soil development--also failed to yield single component
deposits. Reconstruction of flaked stone assemblages within the deep component
relies on characteristics of technology and artifact morphology combined with toolstone material differences. Justification for this
strategy is provided by information about contemporaneous assemblages
throughout the western
Given the circumstances and scope of the project, certain limitations apply.
Obsidian studies do not reflect the true diversity inherent in that assemblage.
While Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo glass groups appear
to predominate during all time periods, the varying importance or presence of
other glasses are not accurately portrayed. Napa Valley, Annadel,
Borax Lake, Queen/Truman, Mt. Hicks, and several lesser sources were identified
but visual sourcing by macroscopic attributes did not distinguished them in
many cases; XRF characterization was applied in selected samples. The absence
of this detail is mostly important to the flake analysis as it has a bearing on
deciphering differences in technological and economic strategies.
ANALYSIS RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
It is clear from the Component 8 data that a full
range of activities pertaining to flaked stone acquisition and use occurred.
Tools were produced, used at the locality as well as presumably elsewhere,
maintained, and replaced. While seasonality of site use can not be determined
directly from flaked stone items, tool functions can be ascribed to hunting,
butchering, and processing of hard and soft materials. A range of flake tools
and drill forms could attest to both vegetal and faunal processing. A high
degree of production of flakes from cores could also be assumed to represent
the need for frequent replacement of expedient cutting and scraping tools.
Flaked stone evidence from the earliest time period of site use suggests either
frequent seasonal visits to the locality for material replacement while
subsistence activities also occurred or potentially year-round sustained use of
the locality for a comparatively short duration. Given the low proportion of
non-local materials ascribed to the formal tool classes of this assemblage, the
latter interpretation is favored. This conclusion can be qualified, however, by
presuming the inhabitants of the region at this timedepth
pursued subsistence activities within a geographically proscribed region where
FGS was readily accessible and therefore had little need of supplementing their
toolkits with non-local materials.
Three
Technological organization of the following small dart assemblage population
was characterized by attributes indicating a greater degree of mobility. This
conclusion is derived from the greater degree of tool maintenance, low numbers
of primary forms, morphological diversity, and material variability evident in
the flaked stone assemblage. Assuming the majority of non-local materials can
be ascribed to this population, settlement relocation in the pursuit of
subsistence apparently either brought the group into contact with peoples from
the east side of the Sierra Nevada range or marked a high level of transhumance
across the crest. Material diversity within the flake tool categories could be
assumed to indicate this population also pursued a subsistence strategy
entailing a broad variety of regionally dispersed processing activities as
well.
Much of Component 7-5 is represented by materials from upper and lower strata
of the other components; certain proveniences might be defined by temporally
delimited assemblages but data from these were not available for this study.
The use of exotic materials increases in this component; CHR and OBS now
represent 11% of the debitage sample and 28% of the
tools. A significant increase in worked flakes and core/core tools and a
decline in the size of these and other tools is coupled with increased
flake-to-tool ratios and decreased flake size.
Technological organization of site inhabitants during the last 4,000 years as
represented by Component 4-1 is more difficult to define given the amount of
mixing of occupational deposits. Again, potential single component areas of
this deposit might be identified in the future but more specific data was
unavailable for this report. While this time period represents at least four
archaeologically defined cultural components, certain generalizations regarding
the flaked stone assemblages must be applied.
Overall, debitage materials other than GRS (55%) each
account for 7-12% of the recovered sample. This differs from Component 8 where
FGS (58%) and GRS (33%) accounted for all but 9% of the sample; individual
materials other than these ranged from 1% (CHR) to 4% (QUZ) in that component.
Thus, the relative importance of these other materials increases with time.
This is reflected in the general decrease in local materials: BAS, GRS, FGS debitage combined dropped to 79% and for tools the
proportion declined to 65%.
In fact, this can be seen more dramatically in the proportions of tool types.
Obsidian was used for bifaces in this component in
37% of that group. It comprised 33% of Component 7-5's group but only nine
percent in Component 8. Obsidian EMFs comprised only
2% of that category in Component 8 but 8% in this component.
CHR comprised 6% of the bifaces and 15% of the unifaces in Component 8 but 17% of the bifaces
and only 7% of the unifaces in this component. This
reflects both a shift in the use of CHR for bifaces
but also a change in the importance of uniface forms,
the latter representing a significant attribute of the earliest assemblage. Use
of CHR for EMFs drops from 8% in Component 8 to 1% in
this component. The number of cores/core tools of CHR increases from three in
Component 8 to seven in Component 4-1.
The mean weight for all debitage materials is less in
Component 4-1 than it is in Component 8. This also correlates with tool size
which evinces a decrease in this component and general increases in
flake-to-tool ratios for most materials which is greater than Component 8 but
somewhat lower than the previous component.
Among the few well-defined Sierra Phase assemblages in the region which might
be useful for comparison is TUO-2192, the Sturgis Site. Situated several miles
east of
Flaked stone debitage at this site was marked by a
recovery rate of 300 items per cubic meter, most of it from the North Locus
(93%). Although this figure was closest in value to that defined for Component
4-1 at Skyrocket, OBS rates were higher (265/m 3) and CCR was much lower (22/m
3); the latter at this site, however, comprises local cherts
and thus might include a variety of FGS and CHR. Flake-to-tool ratios were
289:1 for OBS, 30:1 for CCR, and 29:1 for other. With
the exception of OBS, these figures were much lower than those characterizing
Component 4-1. The high ratio exhibited by OBS could be interpreted as the
product of a high degree of tool curation.
Situated a few miles east of
Debitage recovery rates on 8.83 cubic meters
excavated were 621/m 3: OBS was 182/m 3; CCR was 355/m 3; and miscellaneous igneous materials was 7/m 3. Using only formal
tools, flake-to-tool ratios for OBS was 20:1; if EMFs
are included, this value is 12:1. The higher of these
ratios is lower than the value defining the assemblage from Component 4-1 at
Skyrocket. For CCR the figure is 62:1, higher than the figure for either FGS or
CHR from Component 4-1.
Seventy-seven percent of the OBS submitted for source analysis was BH; the
remaining 23% was comprised of
CAL-991, Ft. Mountain Rockshelter, was situated about
18 miles north of New Melones Reservoir. Although
hydration results and some artifact forms suggest the site contained materials
dated to the last 3000 years, most of the deposit was dominated by occupational
residues attributed to Phase II Late Period assemblages (White 1988). A total
of 6.3m 3 of earth were excavated during the data recovery phase. Based on this
figure, debitage recovery rates were determined as
79/m 3 for OBS, 1214/m 3 for CCR, or about 1301/m 3 total. All the OBS flakes
were less than half inch in size, 69% were trapped in 3-mm screen; 97% of the
CCR was under half inch size (White 1988:47-48). The high recovery rate figure
for CCR might be partly accounted for by inclusion of a variety of cherts in the sample, however, an another
explanation presented below could also be considered the primary factor.
Flake-to-tool ratios for this site can not take into account component
divisions, but most flaked stone materials used in the calculations can be
attributed to the Horseshoe
Additional Comparison
The variability of uses exhibited by locally obtained materials versus exotic
ones characterizes significant differences within and between components.
Specifically, local materials (BAS, FGS, GRS) retaining cortex comprised 29% of
the debitage sample for these materials in Component
8. The mean weight of these combined items was 13.72g indicating the
predominance of large flakes. In contrast, cortical exotic materials (CHR, OBS)
comprised only 4% of that sample and were represented by smaller flakes (2.09g)
including many pressure flakes but a number of larger flakes compatible with biface thinning and some primary reduction.
Component 7-5 was marked by a lower proportion of cortical material in the
local debitage sample (20%) but a higher proportion
in the exotic sample (12%); although the latter might indicate an emerging
trend, it is probably best explained by the low number of specimens in that
sample (n=52). Mean weights indicate a slight increase in size of local
cortical materials (16.84g) over Component 8, and a decrease in size of exotic
material (0.47g).
Although the proportion of cortical local material remains high in Component
4-1 (21%) the mean weight values indicate a significant reduction in flake size
(2.98g) much closer to that represented by OBS in Component 8. Sixteen percent
of the exotic materials retained cortex; these yielded a mean weight value of
1.00g. Again, the sample size of the exotic materials (n=31) could be skewing
the results.
Thus, cortical local material decreases slightly in proportion relative to the
data set but significantly in size. Exotic materials with cortex also exhibit
declines in proportion and a decrease in size, but the contrasts are not as
extreme. It is concluded the use of local materials is marked by significant
differences in technological strategy over time but the role of exotic
materials undergoes less demonstrable change, at least as viewed from this
perspective with the data at hand. The latter frequently arrive at the site in
highly reduced forms retaining little cortex and continue to be treated as
conserved resources throughout time.
The greatest overall differences in the use of flaked stone materials through
time can be attributed to the emphasis on tool manufacture from local FGS in
Component 8. The high proportion of bifaces and unifaces, coupled with the intensive production of these
and other tools and the contribution of greater amounts of debitage,
much of it of a larger size, has generated greater distinctions between the
assemblages. As stated in another portion of the report, changing environmental
conditions might have reduced or eliminated access to this material sometime
after 7000-8000 years ago. This might in part be a factor in the increasing
importance of GRS throughout time, a material characterized by poorer isotropic
structure but perhaps greater availability.
Summation
Changing proportions of tool forms and toolstone materials throughout time at the Skyrocket site
denotes significant changes in technological organization of the inhabitants.
These changes can be linked to adaptations within the paleo-toolkits,
changes in site and assemblage functions, and related changes in subsistence
strategies. One aspect of these changes, the decrease in the relative
importance of FGS, can probably be readily attributed to changes in the local
environment brought on by pronounced shifts in regional climatic patterns. Had
this local material been available in greater quantities to later inhabitants,
it can be assumed it would have played a more important role in the
manufacturing activities at the site, probably to the detriment of GRS. Certain
functional differences between the uses of these materials briefly touched on
above might have emerged in greater detail.
Changes in biface thinning objectives through time
might be linked to the abundance of FGS during the period represented by the
earliest Component 8 assemblage but is more directly attributable to a
significant shift in toolkit functions. Technological and
morphological changes in bifaces between the earliest
assemblage and later periods is a pattern recognized throughout the
western
Additionally, standardized bifacial and unifacial
core forms in the early period (56%) give way to smaller non-standardized forms
later in time. These shifts presumably reflect changing strategies in
technological organization as well. Earlier standardized forms allowed for
greater predictability in flake detachment and establish forms suited to
intended reduction trajectories for defining essential toolkit elements, e.g., biface knives and large unifacial
scrapers.
Later core forms are presumed to reflect an increase in the use of smaller more
expedient tools as well as production of smaller formal tools corresponding
with increased population sedentism. The latter, of
course, corresponded with a new technological development, the bow and arrow.
For the past 1500 years, production of projectile points for hunting and
weaponry required much smaller pieces of raw material and resulted in much
smaller pieces of manufacture debris. Accordingly, the masses of raw material
required for the tools used in the pursuit of daily sustenance diminished
significantly.
Although the information potential of this site has not been fully realized, it
is expected continuing regional investigations in the
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